In contrast, recall is effortful because the brain has to figure out which target memory is to be retrieved. If you test yourself with recall (questions with no hints or answers to choose from), your brain has to reconstruct the pathway from the question to the target concept. In this manner, the pathway is strengthened (or new pathways are built) and as a result, the concept becomes more easily retrievable later. A very effective way to make yourself process information deeply is to explain the study material in your own words. If you are to explain a concept using different words than those used by the textbook or the lecturer, you firstly have to process and understand its meaning and logical connections with other concepts, which effectively boosts encoding by stimulating deep processing. This stands in stark contrast with the situation where you simply re-read the textbook or lecture notes, which constitutes only superficial processing and does not lead to effective encoding. Yet Dr. Restak ventures beyond this familiar territory, considering every facet of memory—how memory is connected to creative thinking, technology’s impact on memory, how memory shapes identity. “The point of the book is to overcome the everyday problems of memory,” Dr. Restak said. Try to remember what time and where you studied the concept, what kind of mood you were in and what had happened on that day For some reason, our brain is better at recalling losses and failings rather than positive experiences.

Mandler, G. (1967). Organization and memory. In K. W. Spence & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory. (Vol. 1, pp. 328–372). New York: Academic Press. If you previously connected these images with both France and Paris, the cue France will activate additional related cues (Eiffel tower, wine, cheese, etc.) and together they will generate more activation than France alone, which spreads to the connected memory trace – Paris. Conversely, if you studied the France-Paris pairing superficially, seeing the word France might not generate sufficient activation on its own to trigger the memory trace of Paris. However, it is not the case that re-reading has no value whatsoever. Re-reading is useful inasmuch as it is used together with practice testing. It is definitely a good idea to selectively re-study the concepts which you cannot recall. Similarly, if you want to have an effective memory, the cognitive strategies you use will make a big difference on your ability to remember things later.If you adopted the second strategy, you would be making use of the structure of your memory. Memory is believed to operate on the principle of spreading activation. [ 32] If you encounter one concept (a country), the neural pathways representing this concept are activated in your brain. As a consequence, nearby neural pathways encoding closely related concepts are also activated. Images and ideas come to your mind. For instance, when someone says France, you may visualize the French flag, the Eiffel tower, French wine, cheese, etc. This process continues to further and further concepts until you start thinking about something else. This example shows that forgetting is not simply memories decaying with time. Our memories crucially depend on cues. A cue is essentially anything (such as a physical object, situation, time period, word, question, concept, etc.) which is paired with a memory trace and which must be activated for the memory trace to be retrieved. For 1/2 of your study time, simulate the environmental conditions of your test (a noisy/quiet environment, similar distractions, people around) A] comprehensive compendium of everything we know about memory and how we might improve it. New Scientist Kelemen, W. L., & Creeley, C. E. (2003). State-dependent memory effects using caffeine and placebo do not extend to metamemory. The Journal of General Psychology, 130(1), 70–86.

From ancient philosophers to Freud, 'The Complete Guide to Memory' breaks down nuggets of theoretical and scientific study into bite-sized synopses with real-life examples for application. In doing so, Richard Restak is not telling the reader which philosophies are inherently correct or incorrect. Instead, he is highlighting the benefits of multiple approaches to the study of memory so that you can decide what may or may not work best for you. These questions lie at the heart of anything you’ll ever learn, do or experience. Your memory impacts everything you do, from how well you’ll do in school, your career, life and even your sense of self and happiness. Scientists have found that regardless of type of test/exam you are going to take, you stand the best chance of succeeding if you revise with practice tests. [ 34] As a demonstration, consider the following experiment: [ 35] Implicit memory is essentially skill memory – the ability to do a task. If your implicit memory failed, you would not be able to brush your teeth, take a shower, drive your car or ride a bike. This kind of memory shows up in our abilities, but we can’t always articulate what it is we know in words and concepts.

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One would expect that the superficially-processing students would underperform in both tests (because deep processing is generally better than superficial processing – see previous section). However, this was the case only for the free-recall test. Surprisingly, in fragment completion, the superficial-processing group was better than the deep-processing group. Naps too exert a positive influence on memory. Naps lasting anywhere from thirty minutes to an hour and a half have been shown to increase later recall for information encoded prior to the nap. As we age, our memory declines. This is an ingrained assumption for many of us; however, according to neuroscientist Dr. Richard Restak, a neurologist and clinical professor at George Washington Hospital University School of Medicine and Health, decline is not inevitable. One way we can overcome interference is by making it explicit. If there are concepts that you get mixed up frequently then put them side by side and re-study them at the same time. Part college text book, part self help guide complete with brain games and memory exercises, and part medical reference manual steeped in social commentary, Richard Restak takes the reader through years of research and scientific observation to arrive at fun and easy ways to exercise your mind and maintain memory. Like the physical body, the mind works best when repeatedly engaged and challenged. But so many other factors come into play, which explains why I can remember the peaches question.

One early indicator of memory issues, according to Dr. Restak, is giving up on fiction. “People, when they begin to have memory difficulties, tend to switch to reading nonfiction,” he said. Spend at least 1/4 of your study time simulating the state you will likely be in during your exam (e.g. sit at a desk, time your answers) Tilley, A. J. (1981). Retention over a period of REM or non-REM sleep. British Journal of Psychology, 241–248.

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Categorization and structuring are not the only ways that you can give meaning to information. A powerful technique that substantially improves memorization is self-explanation. [ 4] Self-explanation simply consists of asking yourself questions about the study material as you study: Note that the recall has to be successful – unsuccessful recall does not strengthen the memory trace. The best time to revise concepts is therefore just before they are about to be forgotten (see our section on spacing effect). Space out your practice. Done properly, you can get the same memory strength with 20-30% less time by spacing properly. The main implication of this study is that structured information is much easier to encode to memory than disorganized information. [ 3]