Nour, S., Svarer, C., Kristensen, J.K., Paulson, O.B., and Law, I. (2000). Cerebral activation during micturition in normal men. Brain 123, 781–789. Ferretti, V., Maltese, F., Contarini, G., Nigro, M., Bonavia, A., Huang, H., Gigliucci, V., Morelli, G., Scheggia, D., Manage, F., et al. (2019). Oxytocin signaling in the central amygdala modulates emotion discrimination in mice. Curr Biol 29, 1938–1953.e6. The animal study that generated the publicly available dataset was reviewed and approved by the Animal Research Ethics Committee, Concordia University. Author Contributions Let us now consider how the reward-mountain model recasts the role of midbrain dopamine neurons in intracranial stimulation, and, potentially, in the relief of treatment-resistant depression by MFB stimulation. Dependence of Intracranial Self-Stimulation of the Medial Forebrain Bundle on Dopaminergic Neurotransmission

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McDonald, E. Rape Myths as Barriers to Fair Trial Processes: Comparing Adult Rape Trials with those in the Aotearoa Sexual Violence Court Pilot (Canterbury Univ. Press, 2020). Li, X.Q., and Du, J.L. (2013). Visual system and prey capture behavior of larval zebrafish. Hereditas 35, 468–476. Hou, X.H., Hyun, M., Taranda, J., Huang, K.W., Todd, E., Feng, D., Atwater, E., Croney, D., Zeidel, M.L., Osten, P., et al. (2016). Central control circuit for context-dependent micturition. Cell 167, 73–86.e12. Luo, S.X., Huang, J., Li, Q., Mohammad, H., Lee, C.Y., Krishna, K., Kok, A.M.Y., Tan, Y.L., Lim, J.Y., Li, H., et al. (2018). Regulation of feeding by somatostatin neurons in the tuberal nucleus. Science 361, 76–81.VP and PS: conceptualization and writing. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Funding Anderson, D.J. (2016). Circuit modules linking internal states and social behaviour in flies and mice. Nat Rev Neurosci 17, 692–704. Research on the role of dopaminergic neurons in reward seeking has accomplished so much and achieved such prominence as to overshadow the established and potential contributions of other neural populations. The ascending dopaminergic projection from the midbrain is merely one of over 50 distinguishable components of the MFB ( Nieuwenhuys et al., 1982). Which of the others contribute to the evaluation and pursuit of rewards and in what ways? The convergence model encourages us to give greater consideration to the non-dopaminergic components, which include descending projections that pass through or near the midbrain region housing dopamine cell bodies and continue deeply into the brainstem ( Nauta et al., 1982).

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Berry, M.J. II, Brivanlou, I.H., Jordan, T.A., and Meister, M. (1999). Anticipation of moving stimuli by the retina. Nature 398, 334–338. Hong, W., Kim, D.W., and Anderson, D.J. (2014). Antagonistic control of social versus repetitive self-grooming behaviors by separable amygdala neuronal subsets. Cell 158, 1348–1361.

Introduction

Blok, B.F.M., and Holstege, G. (1997). Ultrastructural evidence for a direct pathway from the pontine micturition center to the parasympathetic preganglionic motoneurons of the bladder of the cat. Neurosci Lett 222, 195–198. Davidson, J.M. (1966). Activation of the male rat’s sexual behavior by intracerebral implantation of androgen. Endocrinology 79, 783–794. Figure 2 shows that multiple variables intervene between the output of the reward-growth function (the green box labeled “benefit”) and the observable behavior of the rat. These variables, which all shift the mountain along the cost axis ( Breton et al., 2013, 2014; Trujillo-Pisanty et al., 2020), include the subjective effort entailed in holding down the lever, the value of alternate activities, and a scale factor applied to the output of the reward-growth function (not shown). Thus, although the reward-mountain method reduces an important source of ambiguity in the interpretation of curve-shift data, we must put some water in our wine. Other sources of ambiguity persist in the interpretation of data obtained by means of the reward-mountain method, and they are likely to do so until the conceptual entities in the model are replaced by measurable neural signals in identified neurons.

Salience memories formed by value, novelty and aversiveness

Grinevich, V., Knobloch-Bollmann, H.S., Eliava, M., Busnelli, M., and Chini, B. (2016). Assembling the puzzle: pathways of oxytocin signaling in the brain. Biol Psychiatry 79, 155–164. Isa, T., and Sasaki, S. (2002). Brainstem control of head movements during orienting; organization of the premotor circuits. Prog Neurobiol 66, 205–241. Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P.J., Fischbacher, U., and Fehr, E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435, 673–676. Hoy, J.L., Bishop, H.I., and Niell, C.M. (2019). Defined cell types in superior colliculus make distinct contributions to prey capture behavior in the mouse. Curr Biol 29, 4130–4138.e5. Bayless, D.W., Yang, T., Mason, M.M., Susanto, A.A.T., Lobdell, A., and Shah, N.M. (2019). Limbic neurons shape sex recognition and social behavior in sexually naive males. Cell 176, 1190–1205.e20.King, B.M. (2013). The modern obesity epidemic, ancestral hunter-gatherers, and the sensory/reward control of food intake. Am Psychol 68, 88–96. Koshimizu, T., Nakamura, K., Egashira, N., Hiroyama, M., Nonoguchi, H., and Tanoue, A. (2012). Vasopressin V1a and V1b receptors: from molecules to physiological systems. Physiol Rev 92, 1813–1864.

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Hung, L.W., Neuner, S., Polepalli, J.S., Beier, K.T., Wright, M., Walsh, J.J., Lewis, E.M., Luo, L., Deisseroth, K., Dölen, G., et al. (2017). Gating of social reward by oxytocin in the ventral tegmental area. Science 357, 1406–1411. Hoy, J.L., Yavorska, I., Wehr, M., and Niell, C.M. (2016). Vision drives accurate approach behavior during prey capture in laboratory mice. Curr Biol 26, 3046–3052. Caggiano, V., Leiras, R., Goñi-Erro, H., Masini, D., Bellardita, C., Bouvier, J., Caldeira, V., Fisone, G., and Kiehn, O. (2018). Midbrain circuits that set locomotor speed and gait selection. Nature 553, 455–460. Han, W., Tellez, L.A., Rangel Jr, M.J., Motta, S.C., Zhang, X., Perez, I.O., Canteras, N.S., Shammah-Lagnado, S.J., van den Pol, A.N., and de Araujo, I.E. (2017). Integrated control of predatory hunting by the central nucleus of the amygdala. Cell 168, 311–324.e18.The extraordinary zeal, vigor, and persistence shown by laboratory animals working for rewarding MFB stimulation provides a diametrically opposed image of the weakened motivation and goal seeking shown by patients with depression. In the throes of a depressive episode, even goals that normally loom as urgent can lose their incentive power. Could hypoactivity of conserved neural circuitry subserving electrical self-stimulation in laboratory animals account for the motivational deficit burdening depressed humans? If so, it seems plausible that chronic electrical stimulation of such pathways could provide relief and that a deep understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying electrical self-stimulation could contribute further to the development of novel, effective treatments. Contingency Capelli, P., Pivetta, C., Soledad Esposito, M., and Arber, S. (2017). Locomotor speed control circuits in the caudal brainstem. Nature 551, 373–377.